In the miombo woodlands west of Kolwezi — one of the world’s richest concentrations of copper and cobalt ore — a small, almost entirely underground cycad clings to existence on ancient Kalahari sand deposits. Encephalartos schaijesii is one of the least known species in the genus Encephalartos, the largest group of African cycads. Its trunk barely emerges above the soil surface. Its leaves, erect and glaucous-green, rise directly from the ground like a miniature fountain of stiff, spiny fronds. It produces a single cone per stem — modest in size, easily overlooked in the tall grass of the miombo understorey. For decades, this species existed in the collections of a single amateur botanist near Kolwezi before it was formally described. It remains virtually unknown in cultivation outside Africa, and its wild populations face an existential threat from one of the most powerful economic forces on Earth: industrial mining.
The Katanga Copperbelt — the arc of mineral-rich geology stretching from southeastern DRC into Zambia’s Northwestern Province — is the world’s largest producer of cobalt and one of the largest producers of copper. The extraction of these metals, essential for batteries, electric vehicles, and renewable energy infrastructure, drives a relentless expansion of open-pit mines, processing facilities, roads, and settlements across the landscape. Encephalartos schaijesii grows at the epicentre of this industrial transformation, on the very sands and woodlands that are being stripped away for mineral wealth.
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Encephalartos schaijesii Malaisse, Sclavo & Crosiers was first published in 1993 in the Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique (volume 62: 215–219), as part of a paper titled “Recherches sur les Encephalartos Lehm. (Zamiaceae) d’Afrique centrale 2. Apport de la morphologie foliaire dans la différenciation spécifique” — research on the central African Encephalartos species using leaf morphology for species delimitation. The three authors — François Malaisse, Jean-Pierre Sclavo, and C. Crosiers — based the description on material they collected (Malaisse, Moretti & Sclavo 3) at Mupenda, 26 km west-southwest of Kolwezi, at coordinates 10°44’S, 27°15’E, in savanna on Kalahari sands, in March 1988. The holotype is deposited at the National Botanic Garden of Belgium in Meise (BR).
The epithet schaijesii honours Michel Schaijes, a resident of the Kolwezi area whose personal plant collections significantly advanced the botanical knowledge of the region. It is through Schaijes’ patient accumulation of specimens near his home that the cycad first came to scientific attention.
Jean-Pierre Sclavo, one of the three describing authors, is the same French cycad enthusiast who discovered Encephalartos sclavoi in the Usambara Mountains of Tanzania in 1986 — a remarkable coincidence that links two of the most obscure central-east African Encephalartos species through a single individual’s field explorations.
The flavistrobilus synonym: In 2006, I. Turner and Sclavo described Encephalartos flavistrobilus from Zambia (“to the east of Solwezi in clear forest miombo”) in Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement (volume 10(3): 181–183). The holotype (Turner 1251, collected April 2002) is at BR. This taxon — characterised by yellowish cones (hence flavistrobilus, “yellow cone”) — is now treated as a synonym of Encephalartos schaijesii by POWO and the World List of Cycads. This synonymy extends the known range of the species from the DRC into northwestern Zambia, making it a trans-boundary species occurring on both sides of the Copperbelt.
Common names: Kolwezi cycad (informal); Katanga dwarf cycad (descriptive).
Morphological description
Habit and caudex: Encephalartos schaijesii is a dwarf, essentially acaulescent (stemless) cycad. The trunk is subterranean or barely emerges above soil level, reaching only up to 25 cm in height and 20–30 cm in diameter. Secondary stems arise from basal shoots, and the species can form small clumps over time — though it never develops the massive multi-stemmed colonies seen in some South African suckering species. The subterranean habit is shared with several other central African Encephalartos — most notably Encephalartos septentrionalis, which is similarly acaulescent — and represents an adaptation to fire-prone savanna environments where a buried caudex is better protected from heat damage than an exposed trunk.
Leaves: The fronds are erect, pinnate, 80–120 cm long, and form a compact crown arising directly from the ground or from the barely emergent stem apex. Each leaf is supported by a short petiole approximately 2 cm long. The leaflets are arranged in 48–58 pairs along the rachis, set at 70–75° from the midrib — nearly perpendicular, giving the frond a flat, symmetrical, fern-like profile. Each leaflet is lanceolate, with spiny margins and a green, glaucous (faintly waxy or bluish-grey) surface. The glaucous quality is a subtle but distinctive character that separates this species visually from the purely green-leaved relatives.
Reproductive structures: The species is strictly dioecious. Male plants produce a single cone per stem, 15–17 cm long and 4–4.5 cm wide, greenish-yellow in colour. Female plants produce a single cone per stem, cylindrical-ovoid, 29–32 cm long and 12–15 cm wide, grey to greenish in colour. The production of only one cone per stem (in both sexes) is characteristic of dwarf, acaulescent Encephalartos species and contrasts with the prolific multi-cone production seen in arborescent species such as Encephalartos macrostrobilus (6–14 male cones) or Encephalartos septentrionalis (8–15 male cones).
Distribution and natural habitat
Encephalartos schaijesii is native to the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Lualaba Province, formerly part of Katanga Province) and northwestern Zambia (Northwestern Province). The type locality lies 26 km west-southwest of Kolwezi, at the village of Mupenda, at approximately 10°44’S, 27°15’E. The Zambian populations (the former E. flavistrobilus) are located east of Solwezi, in miombo woodland. POWO gives the native range as “S. DR Congo to Zambia.”
The habitat is miombo woodland — the vast, species-rich, fire-maintained dry tropical woodland dominated by trees of the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia that covers much of southern-central Africa. Miombo is one of the most extensive vegetation types on the continent, stretching from Tanzania to Angola and from the DRC to Mozambique. Within this biome, Encephalartos schaijesii grows on Kalahari sand deposits — deep, ancient, nutrient-poor, well-drained sandy soils derived from aeolian (wind-deposited) sediments of Cretaceous to Quaternary age. These Kalahari sands form a distinctive edaphic (soil-determined) habitat within the miombo landscape: the vegetation on Kalahari sand is typically more open and lower-statured than miombo on richer substrates, with a grassy understorey and scattered trees.
The climate is seasonally dry tropical, with a pronounced wet season (October–April) and a long, dry, cool season (May–September). Total annual rainfall is approximately 1000–1400 mm. Temperatures are moderated by the altitude — Kolwezi lies at approximately 1500 m above sea level on the Central African Plateau — and dry-season nighttime temperatures routinely drop to 8–12 °C, with occasional cold spells approaching 4–5 °C. Light ground frost is possible on clear, still nights during June–July at this altitude, though it is infrequent and brief.
Kolwezi and the Copperbelt — a cycad in the shadow of cobalt
The geographic context of Encephalartos schaijesii is inseparable from the geological context. Kolwezi sits on the Central African Copperbelt — an arc of Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks (the Katanga Supergroup) extraordinarily rich in copper and cobalt sulphide ores. The Kolwezi mining district alone produces a substantial proportion of the world’s cobalt — a metal essential for lithium-ion batteries and therefore for the global transition to electric vehicles and renewable energy storage.
The expansion of mining in the Kolwezi area since the 1990s has been dramatic. Open-pit mines, artisanal mining operations, tailings ponds, processing plants, and associated infrastructure have consumed thousands of hectares of miombo woodland and savanna. The Kalahari sand deposits on which the cycad grows are themselves of economic interest for construction aggregate. The result is a landscape in rapid transformation: what was, in 1988, savanna woodland with scattered cycads is, in many areas, now an industrial zone.
The specific fate of the Mupenda type population — 26 km west-southwest of Kolwezi — is unknown. No published monitoring data exist. The overlap between the species’ habitat and the expanding mining footprint creates a conservation scenario that is fundamentally different from the threats facing most other Encephalartos species: this is not a problem of poaching or gradual habitat degradation, but of wholesale habitat destruction by industrial operations with immense financial resources and political backing.
Conservation status
Encephalartos schaijesii is assessed as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List, under criteria B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii,v) — indicating a restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, with continuing decline in the area, extent, and quality of habitat and in the number of mature individuals. The World List of Cycads confirms this assessment. The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
The Vulnerable assessment may understate the actual risk. The criteria were likely applied before the most recent expansion of mining activity in the Kolwezi area, and the inclusion of the Zambian populations (the former flavistrobilus) may have broadened the perceived range. If the DRC populations near Kolwezi have been significantly reduced or destroyed by mining — a plausible scenario given the rate of industrial expansion — the effective conservation status could be substantially worse than VU.
Threats: Industrial mining (copper and cobalt extraction) — the overwhelming and existential threat; artisanal mining; habitat conversion for agriculture; charcoal production; and the general environmental degradation associated with unregulated industrial activity in a poorly governed region.
Cold hardiness
The altitude of the type locality (approximately 1500 m on the Central African Plateau) and the seasonally cool climate create conditions unusual for an equatorial cycad. Dry-season nighttime temperatures of 8–12 °C are routine, and occasional cold spells approaching 4–5 °C occur. Light ground frost during the coldest dry-season nights (June–July) is possible but infrequent.
Practical cold hardiness estimate: USDA Zone 9b–10a (−1 to −4 °C) for brief frost events with dry foliage. The species is significantly more cold-tolerant than the lowland tropical Encephalartos (hildebrandtii, laurentianus) thanks to its plateau-altitude origin. The subterranean caudex provides natural insulation — in the event of frost, the growing point is below ground and protected from direct cold exposure. In Mediterranean climates with mild, brief frosts, outdoor cultivation in a well-drained, sunny position should be feasible. In colder climates, a frost-free greenhouse is recommended, though the species’ compact, acaulescent habit makes it an ideal candidate for container cultivation.
Cultivation guide
Difficulty: 3/5. Cultural requirements are straightforward for a dwarf, fire-adapted, seasonally dry cycad, but the extreme rarity of the species in cultivation means that practical experience is almost non-existent. Virtually no specimens exist in Western collections.
Light: Full sun. The open miombo savanna habitat is fully exposed to tropical sun, and the species is adapted to high light levels. In cultivation, full sun promotes compact growth and the characteristic glaucous leaf colour.
Soil: Deep, well-drained, sandy, nutrient-poor. The Kalahari sand substrate of the natural habitat is the key to understanding this species’ requirements: it demands excellent drainage, tolerates (and may prefer) nutrient-poor conditions, and is adapted to sandy rather than clay or loam soils. In cultivation, a deep pot filled with coarse sand, pumice, and minimal organic matter would best replicate the natural conditions. Avoid heavy or moisture-retentive substrates.
Watering: Regular during the growing (wet) season, minimal during the dry season. The species is adapted to a strong seasonal rhythm — abundant moisture for 6–7 months, then near-total drought for 5–6 months. In cultivation, water generously from spring through autumn, then withhold water almost entirely during winter. The subterranean caudex stores moisture for the dry period.
Feeding: Light. The Kalahari sand habitat is nutrient-poor, and the species is adapted to low-fertility conditions. Excessive fertilisation may promote soft, atypical growth. A dilute, balanced NPK applied two or three times during the growing season is sufficient.
Growth rate: Slow. The dwarf, acaulescent habit and the resource-limited natural habitat suggest a slow growth rate by Encephalartos standards. The trunk remains subterranean for the plant’s entire life, and above-ground growth is limited to the annual production of new fronds and the occasional cone.
Container culture: Ideal. The compact size (trunk barely above ground, fronds 80–120 cm), the deep-sand substrate preference, and the seasonal dormancy make this species perfectly suited to long-term container cultivation. A deep pot (to accommodate the subterranean caudex and taproot) with pure mineral substrate (sand, pumice, fine gravel) and excellent drainage would be optimal. The pot can be kept dry during winter dormancy and moved to a protected position if frost threatens.
Comparison with related central-southern African dwarf species
| Character | E. schaijesii | E. septentrionalis | E. macrostrobilus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Distribution | S. DRC (Kolwezi) / NW Zambia (Solwezi) | S. Sudan / N. Uganda / NE DRC / CAR | NW Uganda (Moyo District) |
| Altitude | ~1500 m (Central African Plateau) | 500–1200 m | 900–1400 m |
| Trunk | Subterranean, to 25 cm × 20–30 cm (dwarf) | Partly subterranean, 30–200 cm × 25–75 cm | Erect → procumbent, to 2.5 m × 30–45 cm |
| Leaf length | 80–120 cm | 90–150 cm (to 2 m) | 1.4–2.2 m |
| Leaflet pairs | 48–58 | 40–50 | Not specified |
| Leaflet surface | Green, glaucous (diagnostic) | Mid green (or silvery in ‘Sudan Silver’) | Very dark green |
| Male cones/stem | 1 (single) | 8–15 (prolific) | 6–14 (prolific) |
| Female cone size | 29–32 cm × 12–15 cm (modest) | 23–35 cm × 18–20 cm | Up to 80 cm × 30 cm (giant) |
| Habitat | Miombo on Kalahari sands | Granite boulders in dry savanna | Rocky hill slopes, open woodland |
| Deciduousness | Probably semi-deciduous | Semi-deciduous (skirt of dead leaves) | Evergreen |
| Cold hardiness | Zone 9b–10a (plateau altitude) | Zone 9b–10a | Zone 9b–10a (estimated) |
| IUCN status | VU (mining threat) | NT (widespread, 4 countries) | EN (181 mature plants) |
| Key threat | Industrial copper/cobalt mining | Fire; limited recruitment | Baboon cone predation; small population |
| Key diagnostic | Glaucous leaflets; Kalahari sand habitat; single cone/stem | Northernmost; semi-deciduous; deep taproot | Giant female cones on modest trunk |
Propagation
Seed: The species produces a single cone per stem, limiting seed output. Seeds are not well described in the literature but are presumably ovoid with a coloured sarcotesta, as in all Encephalartos. Standard germination protocols apply: clean the sarcotesta (gloves — toxic), sow on a sandy, free-draining medium at 27–28 °C. Seed availability is extremely limited due to the species’ rarity in cultivation.
Offsets: The species produces secondary stems from basal shoots, and offset separation is possible in principle. However, the rarity of cultivated material makes this route impractical for most growers.
A cycad, cobalt, and the green transition
Encephalartos schaijesii presents one of the sharpest ironies in contemporary conservation. The global transition to electric vehicles and renewable energy — widely regarded as essential for addressing climate change — depends critically on cobalt, a metal whose largest reserves lie beneath the miombo woodlands and Kalahari sands of the Katanga Copperbelt. The extraction of this cobalt is destroying the habitat of a species that has survived on these sands for millions of years. The cycad that evolved alongside the ancient soils of central Africa is being erased by the very industry that promises to save the planet’s future.
This is not a solvable problem through the usual conservation tools — protected areas, anti-poaching patrols, community engagement. The scale of the mining industry in Katanga, the economic importance of cobalt to the DRC’s national revenue, and the global demand for battery metals make it virtually impossible to prevent further habitat loss in the Kolwezi area. The most realistic conservation strategy for Encephalartos schaijesii may be a combination of ex-situ preservation (establishing secure cultivated populations in botanical gardens), targeted in-situ protection of the Zambian populations (which face somewhat less immediate mining pressure than the DRC populations), and — perhaps — the relocation of individual plants from mining concessions before they are destroyed.
Whether any of this will happen depends on whether anyone is paying attention. For a small, stemless cycad in the miombo of Katanga, competing for conservation attention with elephants, gorillas, and rainforests, that is not a given.
Authority websites
POWO — Plants of the World Online: https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:974651-1
IUCN Red List: https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41958/121560653
World List of Cycads: https://cycadlist.org
Bibliography
Malaisse, F., Sclavo, J.-P. & Crosiers, C. (1993). Recherches sur les Encephalartos Lehm. (Zamiaceae) d’Afrique centrale 2. Apport de la morphologie foliaire dans la différenciation spécifique. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 62: 205–219. [Original description, pp. 215–219]
Turner, I.S. & Sclavo, J.-P. (2006). Encephalartos flavistrobilus, a new species of Zamiaceae from Zambia. Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement 10(3): 181–183. [Synonym]
Whitelock, L.M. (2002). The Cycads. Timber Press, Portland. 374 pp.
Jones, D.L. (2002). Cycads of the World. 2nd ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. 456 pp.
Donaldson, J.S. (ed.) (2003). Cycads: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cycad Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland.
Bösenberg, J.D. (2010). Encephalartos schaijesii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010.
Haynes, J.L. (2022). Etymological compendium of cycad names. Phytotaxa 550(1): 1–31.