The Burrawang — Macrozamia communis — is the cycad that wrote itself into Australian human history. For thousands of years before European contact, the Cadigal people and other Aboriginal nations of coastal New South Wales pounded, soaked, and roasted its toxic seeds into edible cakes — a sophisticated multi-day detoxification process that transformed a lethal poison into a reliable starch staple. The plant that provided this food is the most widespread and abundant cycad in New South Wales, forming vast understorey colonies under eucalypt canopies from Taree to Bega — a 600 km coastal arc that straddles the Sydney Basin and extends to the slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Its trunk is usually subterranean, a cryptic presence beneath the forest floor, but what grows underground is extraordinary: Macrozamia communis produces the largest tuber of any cycad on Earth, swelling to 1.8 metres in diameter — a massive starch reserve that anchors the plant through fire, drought, and centuries of slow growth. It is fire-adapted to a degree that few cycads can match: the persistent leaf bases armour the crown meristem, and cone production is often triggered by fire — a synchronised reproductive event that links the species’ survival to the bushfire cycle of the Australian bush.
Named communis by L. A. S. Johnson in 1959 for its habit of growing “in communities,” this flagship species of the genus Macrozamia — the largest exclusively Australian cycad genus, with around 40 species — is both the common cycad of common ground and a plant of uncommon ecological, cultural, and botanical significance.
Quick Facts
| Scientific name | Macrozamia communis L.A.S.Johnson |
| Family | Zamiaceae |
| Origin | Eastern New South Wales, Australia |
| Adult size | Trunk usually subterranean (or to 2 m emergent); crown spread 2–3 m; leaves 0.7–2 m |
| Hardiness | −4 °C (25 °F) / USDA zones 9a–11 |
| IUCN | Least Concern (LC) |
| CITES | Appendix II (all cycads) |
| Cultivation difficulty | 2/5 |
Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Macrozamia communis was described and named in 1959 by Dr Lawrie A. S. Johnson, then Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales (series 2, 84(1): 98). Johnson created the species to resolve a long-standing nomenclatural confusion: for decades, the large common cycad of the Sydney region had been misidentified as Macrozamia spiralis. Johnson examined Salisbury’s original description and determined that M. spiralis actually referred to a smaller, rarer species with a twisted rachis — and that the familiar Burrawang needed its own name. He chose communis (Latin: “common,” or “living in communities”) for its characteristic habit of forming large, dense stands.
The Macrozamia communis complex: in 1998, Ken Hill (and separately Hill & Jones) segregated two species from the broad M. communis circumscription: Macrozamia montana (the montane form of the Blue Mountains and Great Dividing Range) and Macrozamia reducta (a smaller segregate). This revision considerably reduced the distribution range attributed to M. communis sensu stricto, but the species remains the most widespread and abundant cycad in New South Wales. In older literature, references to “Macrozamia spiralis” from the Sydney region almost certainly refer to M. communis.
Etymology: Macrozamia from the Greek makros (μακρός), “large,” and the genus name Zamia; communis from the Latin for “common” or “in communities.”
Common names: Burrawang (from the Dharuk language of the Aboriginal peoples of the Sydney and Illawarra regions — the original and proper name, often misapplied to other Macrozamia species); Common Burrawang.
Morphological Description
Macrozamia communis is a medium to large, dioecious, evergreen cycad — typically acaulescent or nearly so, with its trunk hidden underground.
Trunk: woody, 30–80 cm in diameter, usually subterranean — pulled below ground level by contractile roots as the plant matures. On shallow soils or rocky sites, the trunk may emerge as an aerial stem up to 1–2 m tall. The subterranean tuber can swell to an extraordinary 1.8 m in diameter — the largest tuber of any cycad species — serving as a massive starch reserve. The trunk surface is covered in persistent leaf bases that form an armour of fire-resistant tissue.
Leaves: 50–100 per crown, pinnate, 70–200 cm long, gracefully arching from a central rosette. The rachis is not twisted (a diagnostic character distinguishing M. communis from the smaller, sympatric Macrozamia spiralis, which has a characteristically twisted rachis).
Leaflets (pinnae): 70–130 per leaf, the longest measuring 16–35 cm long and 4–12 mm wide. Simple, thick, rigid, dark green, somewhat dull, with a coloured callous at the base where they join the rachis — a genus-level character distinguishing Macrozamia from Lepidozamia (which lacks such a callous). The lower leaflets are progressively reduced and somewhat spine-like. The leaflets arise from the lateral edges of the rachis (not from the upper midline, as in Lepidozamia).
Cones:
- Male cones: cylindrical, 20–45 cm long, 8–12 cm in diameter, glaucous, erect then drooping after pollen is shed. A mature male plant may produce up to 5–10 cones simultaneously. Sporophylls bear elongated spine-like appendages (absent in Lepidozamia).
- Female cones: barrel-shaped, glaucous, 20–45 cm long, 10–20 cm in diameter, erect then drooping when mature. Usually 1–3 per plant. When ripe, the cone breaks apart to release the seeds.
Seeds: large, oblong to ovoid, 30–50 mm long, 20–30 mm wide, with a fleshy sarcotesta that is bright red, orange, or occasionally yellow. Red-seeded plants predominate; yellow-seeded and intermediate orange-seeded individuals can be found growing side by side in the same stands — a striking polymorphism. Highly toxic.
Coralloid roots: seedlings develop apogeotropic (upward-growing) coralloid roots that emerge at or above the soil surface, harbouring nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (primarily Nostoc spp.). This symbiosis is a universal cycad character, but Macrozamia communis has become the model organism for studying it: the species’ coralloid roots have more distinct developmental stages than those of most other cycad genera, progressing through precoralloid initiation, cyanobacterial invasion, coralloid formation, senescence, and regeneration.
Similar Species and Common Confusions
| Character | Macrozamia communis | Macrozamia spiralis | Macrozamia montana | Lepidozamia peroffskyana |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trunk | Usually subterranean | Subterranean, smaller | Subterranean to emergent | Aerial, 4–7 m tall |
| Leaves per crown | 50–100 | 2–12 | Variable | Numerous |
| Leaf length | 70–200 cm | 35–100 cm | Similar to M. communis | 150–300 cm |
| Rachis twisted? | No | Yes (180–360°) | No | No |
| Leaflet insertion | Lateral | Lateral | Lateral | Upper midline |
| Leaflet callous | Present | Present | Present | Absent |
| Habitat | Coastal & near-coastal NSW | Sydney Basin, restricted | Montane, Great Dividing Range | SE QLD & NE NSW |
The most frequent confusion is between Macrozamia communis and Macrozamia spiralis, which are sympatric in the Sydney Basin. The twisted rachis of M. spiralis, its much smaller size (2–12 leaves, 35–100 cm long), and its scattered growth pattern (individual plants, not dense colonies) are the key distinguishing characters. Macrozamia montana, segregated from the M. communis complex in 1998, occupies montane habitats on the Great Dividing Range. Lepidozamia peroffskyana overlaps in range (NE NSW into SE QLD) but is immediately distinguished by its tall aerial trunk and leaflets arising from the upper midline of the rachis.
Distribution and Natural Habitat
Macrozamia communis has the most extensive distribution of any cycad in New South Wales. It occurs along the coast and adjacent slopes of the Great Dividing Range from the Taree region (mid-north coast) approximately 600 km south to near Bega (far south coast), with some populations extending inland as far as the Mudgee district and near Armidale. Sydney lies approximately midway along this range, and several large stands are found within and around the city.
The species grows from near sea level to approximately 300 m altitude in wet to dry sclerophyll forests, always as an understorey plant beneath a eucalypt canopy. Near the coast, it grows on sandy soils and stabilised sand dunes; on the coastal ranges, it grows on gravelly loams and shallow sandy or stony soils on ridges. It is locally abundant — in favourable sites, it forms dense, extensive colonies where it is the dominant understorey species, with populations comprising thousands of plants.
The species is most prolific on the south coast of NSW (Shoalhaven, Illawarra, Eurobodalla) and to a slightly lesser extent on the central coast north of Sydney.
Climate in the native range:
| Parameter | Coastal NSW (Taree–Bega corridor) |
|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 16–20 °C |
| Mean winter minimum | 4–10 °C |
| Historical absolute minimum | −4 °C (frost regular in some inland areas) |
| Mean summer maximum | 25–35 °C |
| Annual rainfall | 1,000–1,500 mm (reasonably evenly distributed) |
| Köppen classification | Cfa (humid subtropical) to Cfb (oceanic) |
This is a temperate to warm-temperate climate with reliable rainfall — warm to hot summers, cool to cold winters with regular frost in some inland areas, and no true dry season. The species is adapted to the fire-prone eucalypt forests that dominate this climate zone.
Conservation
Macrozamia communis is listed as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (Hill 2010). The species is very common across its wide range, occurs in numerous large subpopulations (some comprising thousands of individuals), and the threats are not considered significant enough to warrant conservation concern. Many populations occur within national parks and state forests.
Localised threats include habitat clearing for urban development and agriculture, which can fragment populations and reduce genetic diversity — particularly on the rapidly developing central and south coasts of NSW. However, the species’ fire resilience, drought tolerance, and large population size provide a substantial buffer.
Fire Ecology
The relationship between Macrozamia communis and fire is one of the most ecologically significant aspects of this species — and one that distinguishes it from most cycads outside Australia.
Fire tolerance: the persistent leaf bases that clothe the trunk create a thick, fire-resistant armour protecting the apical meristem. When the fronds are burned off or badly scorched, the plant immediately begins producing new leaves from the protected growing point. Adults survive all but the most extreme fires.
Fire-stimulated reproduction: cone production is frequently triggered by fire. This synchronised reproductive response — known as masting — concentrates pollination effort and overwhelms seed predators, increasing the probability of successful seedling establishment. The mechanism is thought to involve heat or smoke chemicals stimulating reproductive pathways in the underground stem.
Seedling vulnerability: while adult plants are fire-tolerant, seedlings and unburied seeds are typically killed by fire. This creates a pulse-recruitment dynamic: a post-fire window of cone production and seed dispersal, followed by a vulnerable establishment phase before the next fire arrives.
This fire ecology links Macrozamia communis to the broader evolutionary history of the Australian flora — a fire-adapted biota that has been shaped by millions of years of bushfire.
Pollination and Seed Dispersal
Macrozamia communis sheds its pollen as early as late winter. The megasporophylls of mature female cones separate vertically and remain open and receptive for several days.
Dual pollination: Terry (2001) demonstrated that Macrozamia communis is pollinated by both thrips and weevils — a dual, specialist pollination system. The primary pollinator is the weevil Tranes lyterioides (Curculionidae), which inhabits both male and female cones and carries abundant pollen on its body surface. The Tranes weevils enter the receptive spaces of female cones with no difficulty. This cycad-weevil relationship is likely ancient — weevils trace an ancestry to at least the Triassic (~225–190 million years ago), contemporaneous with the origin of the cycads.
Seed dispersal: the bright red (or yellow or orange) sarcotesta attracts brushtail possums, rodents, and other animals, which consume the fleshy coating and discard or cache the hard inner seed — facilitating local dispersal across the forest floor.
Aboriginal Ethnobotany
The cultural significance of Macrozamia communis in Aboriginal Australian history is profound. The seeds were a major starch staple for the Cadigal, Dharug, Yuin, and other Aboriginal nations of coastal New South Wales — despite being acutely toxic in their raw state (cycasin, macrozamin, and other azoxyglycosides). The detoxification process, developed over millennia, involved:
- Pounding the seeds to expose the starch-rich kernel.
- Soaking the pulp in running or changed water for approximately one week, with the water changed daily to leach out the water-soluble toxins.
- Forming the treated pulp into cakes.
- Roasting the cakes over hot embers.
This sophisticated food processing — a form of detoxification chemistry predating any written pharmacopoeia — transformed a potentially lethal seed into a reliable, calorie-dense food. The process bears comparison with the detoxification of cassava (Manihot esculenta) in tropical regions: both involve repeated leaching to remove cyanogenic or azoxyglycosidic toxins.
Beyond food, the tough, fibrous leaves were used for weaving baskets, mats, and shelters. The starchy pith of the trunk could be extracted and processed into a form of sago. The word “Burrawang” — from the Dharuk language — is the proper Aboriginal name for this plant, and has become the de facto common name for the entire genus in Australian English.
The species has also caused fatalities in both humans and livestock when seeds were consumed without adequate processing — a grim reminder that the distinction between food and poison, for this plant, lies entirely in the knowledge of how to treat it.
Cultivation
| Hardiness | −4 °C (25 °F) / USDA zones 9a–11 |
| Light | Partial shade to full sun (prefers dappled shade) |
| Soil | Well-drained; sandy, sandy loam, gravelly; acidic to neutral |
| Watering | Drought-tolerant once established; regular watering enhances growth |
| Adult size | Crown 1.5–2 m tall, 2–3 m spread (trunk usually underground) |
| Growth rate | Slow (5+ years to become a noticeable feature plant) |
| Difficulty | 2/5 |
Macrozamia communis is one of the easiest and hardiest cycads for cultivation — recommended for beginners and widely grown in subtropical, warm-temperate, and Mediterranean climates worldwide. It has been in cultivation for many years.
Light: in habitat, it grows as an understorey plant under an open eucalypt canopy, preferring partial shade to dappled sunlight. Cultivated specimens adapt well to full sun if acclimated gradually and watered adequately, but fronds are generally greener, more vigorous, and less stressed in filtered light.
Soil: well-drained is the only firm requirement. Sandy soils, sandy loams, gravelly loams, and even poor, stony soils are all acceptable — reflecting the species’ diverse edaphic range in the wild. Slightly acidic to neutral pH. The coralloid root symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria means the plant can tolerate very nutrient-poor soils.
Watering: drought-tolerant once established, thanks to the massive subterranean tuber that stores water and starch. However, regular watering during dry periods promotes more vigorous growth and a lusher crown. Overwatering and waterlogging are more dangerous than underwatering.
Cold hardiness: one of the hardier Macrozamia species. The native range includes areas where frost is regular, and winter minima reach −4 °C. USDA zone 9a minimum. The subterranean trunk provides thermal insulation: soil temperatures rarely fluctuate as dramatically as air temperatures, giving the meristem significant frost protection. This underground habit makes M. communis more cold-tolerant than its tall-trunked cousin Lepidozamia peroffskyana, whose exposed aerial meristem is more vulnerable.
Container culture: excellent. The species makes an attractive, architectural container plant for patios and courtyards. Growth is very slow, so repotting is rarely needed.
Cones: do not expect cones for at least 10 years, and male and female plants are needed for seed production.
Caution: the leaflet tips are sharp and spine-like, especially the reduced lower leaflets. Do not plant directly adjacent to walkways or areas where children play.
Buying Advice
Availability: Macrozamia communis is widely available from specialist cycad nurseries in Australia and from international dealers. Seeds are commonly offered and germinate without pretreatment. Prices are moderate, but mature specimens command high prices due to the species’ slow growth. Be sure to purchase from reputable nurseries — wild collection of Australian cycads is illegal without permit.
Identification: verify provenance and distinguish from Macrozamia montana (montane origin, usually from higher elevations on the Great Dividing Range) and the much smaller Macrozamia spiralis (twisted rachis, far fewer leaves). Provenance matters for cold hardiness: plants from southern populations (Bega, Illawarra) experience colder winters than those from the Taree area.
Propagation
Seed: the standard method. Clean the bright red sarcotesta (wear gloves — toxic) and sow in well-drained mix at 25–30 °C. Germination is cryptocotylar, typically within 6–24 months — a wide range reflecting the species’ notoriously variable germination timing. No pretreatment (scarification, stratification) is necessary. Early seedling growth is very slow; 5+ years to reach a noticeable garden size.
Offsets: very occasionally produced from the base; not a reliable propagation method.
Pests and Diseases
Scale insects and mealybugs: the most common pest problem. Easily managed with horticultural oil or removal of affected fronds.
Cycad blue butterfly (Chilades pandava): an invasive pest spreading through eastern Australia whose caterpillars destroy emerging soft fronds. Control with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
Root rot: in waterlogged, poorly drained soils. The massive tuber is particularly susceptible if sitting in saturated ground.
Toxicity: all parts are highly toxic, containing cycasin, macrozamin, and other azoxyglycosides. The seeds are the most dangerous part due to their attractive bright red sarcotesta. Toxic to dogs, cats, livestock (cattle fatalities documented), and humans. The toxic roots have been used locally as rat poison. Never attempt to process seeds for food without thorough knowledge of traditional detoxification methods.
Landscape Use
Macrozamia communis is one of the most ornamental and garden-worthy of all Australian cycads. Its gracefully arching crown of dark green fronds creates a prehistoric, tropical silhouette that pairs beautifully with eucalypts, banksias, grevilleas, and other Australian natives in a bush garden setting — or with palms, tree ferns, and other cycads in a tropical or subtropical border. The subterranean trunk means the plant presents as a large, spreading rosette at ground level rather than a tree — an attractive habit for understorey planting, mass planting on slopes (excellent for erosion control), or as a specimen in a shaded courtyard. The bright red seeds, when produced, are visually spectacular — but ensure that children and pets cannot access them. For gardeners in warm-temperate or Mediterranean climates seeking a fire-tolerant, drought-tolerant, low-maintenance cycad that connects them to 200 million years of evolutionary history and thousands of years of Aboriginal cultural heritage, the Burrawang is an obvious and rewarding choice.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why is it called “Burrawang”?
The name comes from the Dharuk language, spoken by the Aboriginal peoples of the Sydney and Illawarra regions. It was originally specific to Macrozamia communis, but has since been applied loosely to all Macrozamia species and even to unrelated cycads in popular Australian usage.
How do I tell Macrozamia communis from Macrozamia spiralis?
Macrozamia spiralis is much smaller (2–12 leaves, 35–100 cm long), has a distinctive twisted rachis (180–360°), and grows as scattered individuals — not in the large dense colonies typical of M. communis. Macrozamia communis has 50–100 leaves to 200 cm long with an untwisted rachis.
Can I eat the seeds?
No — not without an extensive, traditional detoxification process. The raw seeds are acutely toxic (cycasin), and fatalities have occurred in both humans and livestock. Aboriginal Australians developed a sophisticated week-long pounding, soaking, and roasting process to make them safe. This should not be attempted casually.
Is Macrozamia communis frost-tolerant?
Yes — it is one of the hardier cycads, tolerating winter minima down to approximately −4 °C (25 °F). The subterranean trunk provides additional frost protection, as soil temperatures are more buffered than air temperatures. USDA zone 9a minimum.
Why does my Macrozamia communis never produce cones?
Cycads are slow to reach reproductive maturity — expect at least 10 years, and often much longer. The species is dioecious, so both male and female plants are needed for seed production. In cultivation far from native pollinators, hand pollination may be necessary. In habitat, cone production is often triggered by fire.
Authority Websites and Databases
POWO — Plants of the World Online (Kew)
https://powo.science.kew.org/…
The accepted nomenclatural record.
World List of Cycads — cycadlist.org
https://cycadlist.org/scientific_name/376
First published in Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2, 84(1): 98 (1959).
PACSOA — Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia
https://pacsoa.org.au/wiki/index.php/Macrozamia_communis
The most comprehensive grower’s account. Distribution (Taree to Bega, ~600 km), 1998 segregation of M. montana and M. reducta, affinity with M. spiralis clarified, cultivation notes. By Craig Thompson and Paul Kennedy.
ANPSA — Australian Native Plants Society
https://anpsa.org.au/plant_profiles/macrozamia-communis/
Concise profile: medium-sized cycad with short or subterranean trunk, not demanding if drainage is good, slow growing, propagation from seed without pretreatment, Aboriginal food use.
NSW PlantNET — Macrozamia communis
https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/…
Official NSW Flora treatment: stem mostly subterranean (1–2 m aerial on shallow soils), 30–60 cm diameter, leaves 50–100, 70–200 cm, pinnae 70–130, longest 16–35 cm × 4–12 mm.
LLIFLE Encyclopedia
https://llifle.com/Encyclopedia/PALMS_AND_CYCADS/…
Comprehensive profile: distribution (coast from Armidale to Bega, also Mudgee), three habitat types, pollination by Tranes lyterioides weevils, fire ecology (leaf base armour, resprouting, fire-stimulated coning), seed colour polymorphism (red/yellow/orange), coralloid root symbiosis.
Australian National Botanic Gardens — Growing Native Plants
https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/…
Detailed cultivation profile: trunk 30–80 cm diameter, typically underground, 50–100 flat leaves to 200 cm, female cones 200–450 mm, male cones 200–450 mm, seeds 30–45 mm with red/orange/yellow sarcotesta. Etymology from Dharuk language.
Terry, I. (2001) — Dual pollination
International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: 1293–1305
Demonstrated that Macrozamia communis is pollinated by both thrips and weevils (Tranes lyterioides), establishing the concept of dual, specialist cycad pollination.
Groff, P. A., & Kaplan, D. R. (1988) — Coralloid root development
American Journal of Botany 75(8): 1143–1164
Definitive study of coralloid root ontogeny in M. communis: precoralloid initiation, cyanobacterial invasion, coralloid formation, senescence, and regeneration. Model system for cycad–cyanobacteria symbiosis research.
Bibliography
Fairley, A., & Moore, P. (2010). Native Plants of the Sydney Region: From Newcastle to Nowra and West to the Dividing Range. Allen & Unwin.
Groff, P. A., & Kaplan, D. R. (1988). The relation of root systems to shoot systems in vascular plants. Botanical Review, 54(4), 387–422.
Hill, K. D. (1998). Cycadophyta. Flora of Australia, 48, 597–661.
Hill, K. D. (2010). Macrozamia communis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010.
Johnson, L. A. S. (1959). The families of cycads and the Zamiaceae of Australia. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 84, 64–117.
Jones, D. L. (2002). Cycads of the World (2nd ed.). New Holland Publishers, Sydney.
Norstog, K. J., & Nicholls, T. J. (1997). The Biology of the Cycads. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Terry, I. (2001). Thrips and weevils as dual, specialist pollinators of the Australian cycad Macrozamia communis (Zamiaceae). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 162(6), 1293–1305.
Whitelock, L. M. (2002). The Cycads. Timber Press, Portland. pp. 250–251.