In March 2026, at the Geneva Botanical Garden in Switzerland, a Doryanthes palmeri specimen broke into full flower for the first and only time in its life — forty-three years after being sown from seed in 1983. The event, widely reported in the European press, offered botanical gardens and private collectors an extraordinary reminder of the patience this species demands, and of the quiet, decades-long work that lies behind the most spectacular of flowering events. A second specimen at the same garden, sown in 2016, is already being prepared to take over in the coming decades.
Known throughout Australia as the giant spear lily or Queensland mountain lily, Doryanthes palmeri is one of only two species in the genus Doryanthes, both endemic to the eastern coast of Australia. It is the larger and rarer of the two, confined to the volcanic caldera of Mount Warning and the surrounding McPherson Range on the Queensland–New South Wales border. Its enormous rosette of pendant leaves — reaching three metres in length — crowned by a spectacular curving flower scape carrying an elongated raceme of scarlet blossoms, places it among the most imposing flowering plants cultivated in subtropical and Mediterranean gardens.
Quick facts
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific name | Doryanthes palmeri W.Bull ex Benth. |
| Year published | 1873 (Gardeners’ Chronicle) |
| Family | Doryanthaceae |
| Order | Asparagales |
| Native range | SE Queensland, NE New South Wales (Australia) |
| Leaf length | 2-3 m |
| Flowering stem | Up to 5 m, bending under weight |
| Flower colour | Scarlet to crimson red |
| Cold hardiness | USDA zones 9b-11, brief dips to –3 to –5 °C tolerated |
| Conservation status | Vulnerable (NSW TSC Act 1995) |
| Ease of cultivation | 3/5 (moderately demanding) |
| Life cycle | Modular monocarpy (flowering rosette dies, clump survives) |
| Time to flowering | 13-15 years in the wild, 20-45 years in cultivation |
Taxonomy and nomenclature
The species was described by the English nurseryman William Bull in 1873, in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, based on plant material forwarded from Queensland by the colonial botanist Walter Hill. The species was subsequently validated by George Bentham, giving the full accepted authorship Doryanthes palmeri W.Bull ex Benth. The specific epithet honours Sir Arthur Hunter Palmer (1819-1898), at that time Premier of the Colony of Queensland — a not-infrequent nineteenth-century practice of naming spectacular plants after political patrons who supported their importation and cultivation in European glasshouses.
The genus Doryanthes itself was erected earlier, in 1802, by the Portuguese naturalist José Francisco Corrêa da Serra, from the type species Doryanthes excelsa. The genus name combines the Greek roots dory (δόρυ, “spear”) and anthos (ἄνθος, “flower”) — a clear reference to the erect lance-like flowering stem.
The family Doryanthaceae is monogeneric and now sits within the order Asparagales under the APG IV (2016) classification. Formerly assigned to the Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae and then the Agavaceae, it has gradually been recognised as an isolated lineage within the core Asparagales, distant from the Asparagaceae that contain Agave, Yucca, and their relatives.
Accepted synonyms (per Plants of the World Online):
- Doryanthes excelsa var. palmeri (W.Bull) F.M.Bailey (1883)
- Doryanthes larkinii C.Moore (1885)
- Doryanthes guilfoylei F.M.Bailey (1893)
- Doryanthes palmeri var. larkinii (C.Moore) C.Moore (1893)
- Doryanthes excelsa var. guilfoylei (F.M.Bailey) F.M.Bailey (1902)
The nineteenth-century synonymy reflects taxonomic uncertainty about whether the northern giant spear lily and the southern gymea lily were true species or geographic variants. Modern treatments unambiguously accept them as two distinct species.
Common names: giant spear lily, Queensland mountain lily, Palmer spear-lily, spear lily (English); lys géant à lance, doryanthès de Palmer (French); giglio lancia gigante (Italian); Speerlilie (German); espiguilla australiana (Spanish).
Morphological description
The mature plant forms a massive, acaulescent rosette of 2 to 3 metres in diameter, rising from a thickened, fleshy underground rhizome. Unlike its sister species Doryanthes excelsa, which depends heavily on root-contraction to bury its rhizome deep in sandy soils, Doryanthes palmeri typically grows on exceptionally shallow soils — often less than 5 cm of substrate over rock — where the rhizome sprawls close to the surface and anchors itself through a dense fibrous root system exploiting every crevice.
The leaves are the defining feature of the species: strap-shaped to lanceolate, reaching 3 metres long and 15-20 cm wide at their broadest point, they are distinctly larger and more pendant than those of Doryanthes excelsa. New leaves rise upright from the centre of the rosette; older ones arch gracefully outward and downward, giving the mature plant a characteristic fountain-like silhouette. The leaves are bright to deep green, entirely glabrous, rigid but not brittle, and bear prominent longitudinal venation with fine parallel furrows. Juvenile leaves may show a faint glaucous bloom. Neither marginal spines nor a terminal spine are present — a decisive diagnostic feature separating the genus from superficially similar Agave and Furcraea.
The flowering scape, produced only on mature rosettes and only after many years of vegetative growth, rises abruptly from the centre of the plant. It may reach 5 metres in height, but — uniquely among the genus — it does not remain strictly erect. As the inflorescence develops and its weight increases, the scape curves conspicuously, sometimes bending well over the horizontal. Short reduced bracts up to 30 cm long clamber up the stem. The inflorescence itself is an elongated, cylindrical raceme up to 120 cm long, carrying fewer but more widely spaced flowers than the compact globose head of Doryanthes excelsa.
Individual flowers are large, 10 to 12 cm long, with six fleshy scarlet tepals arranged in two whorls around six prominent stamens and a superior, three-chambered ovary. The flowers open sequentially from the base of the raceme upward, the lower flowers fading as new ones above expand — a progression that extends the overall flowering display over three to five weeks. Fruits are woody three-valved capsules containing numerous flattened, winged brown seeds dispersed by wind.
Similar species and common confusions
The principal confusion arises with Doryanthes excelsa, the only other species of the genus. Outside flowering, the two species are genuinely difficult to tell apart, and commercial mislabelling is common — particularly for juvenile plants. In bloom, the diagnostic characters become unmistakable.
| Character | Doryanthes palmeri | Doryanthes excelsa |
|---|---|---|
| Leaf length | 2-3 m, pendant | 1.5-2.5 m, more upright |
| Leaf width | 15-20 cm | 10-12 cm |
| Flowering scape | Up to 5 m, bending under weight | 3-6 m, strictly erect |
| Inflorescence | Elongated raceme (up to 120 cm) | Compact globose head |
| Flower arrangement | Fewer, widely spaced | 100-200 densely packed |
| Habitat | Volcanic cliffs, wet sclerophyll forest | Coastal sandstone plateaus |
| Altitude | 500-1,100 m | 0-600 m |
| Native range | McPherson Range (QLD/NSW border) | Coastal NSW (Corindi to Nowra) |
| Conservation status | Vulnerable (NSW TSC Act 1995) | Least Concern |
Confusion with large Agave species — notably Agave americana, Agave salmiana and Agave weberi — is occasionally reported among observers unfamiliar with Australian flora. The distinction is easily made at close range: Doryanthes palmeri has only moderately succulent, bright green leaves (rather than the thick, glaucous blue-grey leaves typical of agaves), lacks marginal spines and a terminal spine, and belongs to a distinct family. Similarly, superficial resemblance to large Furcraea species evaporates on examination of the unarmed leaf margins and the absence of the bulbil-bearing inflorescences characteristic of Furcraea.
Natural habitat and distribution
Doryanthes palmeri has one of the most geographically restricted distributions of any notable Australian plant — an area of occupancy estimated at less than 1 km² — confined to the McPherson Range straddling the Queensland–New South Wales border. The core populations occupy the caldera of Mount Warning (a deeply eroded shield volcano whose activity ceased approximately 23 million years ago), the Springbrook Plateau, the Lamington Plateau, and the Border Ranges National Park. The species extends south to the southeast of Murwillumbah in NSW, and reportedly north toward the Killarney and Toowoomba areas of Queensland.
The plant colonises rhyolite and basalt outcrops, steep exposed cliffs and precipitous slopes at altitudes of 500 to 1,100 metres, typically in wet sclerophyll forest or at forest edges. Soils are minimal — often less than 5 cm deep — directly overlying volcanic bedrock. Associated species include Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Brachychiton acerifolius, Xanthorrhoea johnsonii, tree ferns (Cyathea spp.) and a rich subtropical rainforest understorey.
To situate the species in concrete climatic terms, the Springbrook Bureau of Meteorology station (site 40607, 28°12′S 153°16′E, altitude 697 m, operational since 1981) provides reference data for the core of its range. Winters at this elevation are cool by Australian subtropical standards: nocturnal minima may drop briefly below 0 °C during polar air incursions, morning fogs are frequent, and summer maxima rarely exceed 30 °C thanks to altitude and forest cover. Annual rainfall typically exceeds 2,000 mm, strongly concentrated in the austral summer. The Köppen-Geiger classification is Cfa/Cfb at the upper margins of the range — humid subtropical to warm temperate. This climatic context explains the species’ surprising tolerance of brief frosts for a plant of such imposing subtropical appearance, and justifies its USDA zone 9b rating in international horticultural literature.
At lower elevations within the caldera itself, the climate is distinctly warmer and closer to the classic humid subtropical profile. The species thus tolerates a moderate internal climatic gradient within its restricted range.
Conservation
Doryanthes palmeri has been formally listed as Vulnerable under the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act since 1995. The landmark ecological study by Perry (2001), published in Cunninghamia 7(2): 183-193, documented an area of occupancy of less than 1 km², severely fragmented, with a projected population decline of at least 20% over three generations (approximately 39 years). The assessment methodology followed IUCN Red List criteria, applied to the NSW populations with supporting evidence from the southeastern Queensland range.
Principal threats identified are:
- Illegal seed harvesting for the ornamental horticulture trade — the species is highly sought after by collectors worldwide and commands premium prices on grey markets;
- Altered fire regimes — excessively frequent bushfires destroy juvenile rosettes before they can rebuild reserves and replace the dying flowered individuals;
- Invasive plant competition, notably from Lantana camara and Ageratina riparia, which aggressively colonise disturbed forest edges;
- Recreational trampling in accessible tourist zones of Springbrook and Lamington National Parks;
- Habitat fragmentation from historical clearing, logging and infrastructure development along the McPherson Range.
The species is not listed under CITES appendices. Conservation largely depends on the preservation of Springbrook National Park, Lamington National Park and Border Ranges National Park, together with active ex-situ cultivation in botanical gardens. The March 2026 flowering at the Geneva Botanical Garden — from a specimen sown in 1983, sustained by successive generations of gardeners over 43 years — illustrates precisely the multi-decadal commitment that ex-situ conservation of this species demands. An earlier flowering at the same garden occurred in 2022.
Cultivation
| Parameter | Recommendation |
|---|---|
| Cold hardiness | –3 to –5 °C (mature), USDA zones 9b-11 |
| Light | Full sun to light afternoon shade |
| Soil | Free-draining, neutral to slightly acidic, rich in organic matter |
| Water | Regular during warm season, strongly reduced in winter |
| Adult size | Rosette 2-3 m diameter |
| Growth rate | Slow to very slow |
| Time to flowering | 15-45 years after sowing |
| Difficulty | 3/5 |
Light
Full sun is required for flower induction. In Mediterranean climates, full exposure is preferred, with some afternoon shade tolerated in areas with torrid summers. In cooler climates or under glass, the plant must be placed immediately adjacent to a south-facing wall or bright window — every additional hour of direct light accelerates the eventual flowering event. Inadequate light produces soft, drooping foliage that loses the characteristic fountain-like architecture, and indefinitely delays any prospect of flowering.
Soil and drainage
Although classed as a facultative xerophyte, Doryanthes palmeri tolerates — and in fact benefits from — richer substrates than most strict succulents. A suitable mix combines 40% loamy garden soil, 30% mature compost, 20% pumice or scoria (4-8 mm), and 10% coarse sand. Drainage is absolutely non-negotiable: on heavy clay soils, raised planting beds or rockery berms are the only viable option, since any prolonged waterlogging leads directly to crown rot in cold conditions. The species tolerates a pH range from slightly acidic to neutral, matching the volcanic soils of its natural habitat.
Watering
Less water is better than too much. In-ground plantings in Mediterranean climates require deep watering every two to three weeks from May to September, with natural rainfall generally sufficient in winter. For container culture, allow the root-ball to dry noticeably between waterings and reduce supply drastically from November to March in the Northern Hemisphere. Standing water in the rosette crown causes necrosis and must be avoided, particularly during cold spells.
Cold hardiness
The frost tolerance of Doryanthes palmeri is surprisingly respectable for a plant of such subtropical stature. Well-established mature specimens on perfectly drained soil, in a sheltered position, tolerate brief frosts of –3 to –5 °C without lasting damage. Superficial leaf burn appears beyond this threshold, and sustained cold below –7 °C may cut the foliage back to the rhizome, from which regrowth is possible in mild Mediterranean climates.
Young plants under five years old are significantly more sensitive and require winter protection below –2 °C — horticultural fleece in mild areas, glasshouse shelter in cooler climates. The most remarkable long-term records come from European glasshouse cultivation: the 43-year sown-to-flowering cycle at the Geneva Botanical Garden is the current headline example, but mature in-ground specimens also flower regularly at the Hanbury Botanical Gardens (La Mortola, Italian Riviera) and at the Villa Ormond in San Remo, confirming viability in classic Mediterranean coastal conditions (USDA zone 9b-10a). In California, specimens can be seen at the UC Berkeley Botanical Garden.
Fertilisation
A light application of balanced slow-release fertiliser in spring (NPK 10-10-10 or an equivalent organic formulation) is sufficient. A potassium top-dressing in early summer is thought to promote eventual flower induction. Avoid excess nitrogen, which yields soft, unphotogenic foliage and reduces cold tolerance.
Container cultivation
Large-container cultivation (minimum 60 litres for a 5-year-old plant, 150 to 300 litres for a mature specimen) is both possible and advisable in marginal climates, since it allows winter shelter. The Geneva case confirms that flowering remains achievable in a pot, given stable substrate, controlled watering and sustained care over decades. The principal long-term challenge in container culture is mechanical stability: a mature rosette represents a considerable mass and wind-sail area, and the container must be proportionally heavy and well-anchored.
Growth rate
Very slow. Expect 3 to 5 years to produce a 50 cm rosette from seed, 10 to 15 years to reach adult dimensions in optimal in-ground conditions, and longer in pots or marginal climates. Flowering in the wild begins at 13-15 years. In cultivation, 20 to 45 years is typical, depending on light intensity and the rate at which reserves accumulate in the rhizome.
Buying guide
Plants available on the European and North American horticultural markets originate principally from seed propagation in Australia, Italy or the United States. Several precautions apply:
- Favour medium-sized specimens (40-60 cm rosettes): very young seedlings are fragile and slow; very large specimens suffer severe transplant shock and struggle to re-establish.
- Verify provenance: insist on documentation confirming nursery propagation from legally collected seed. The species is formally Vulnerable in NSW, and wild collection is illegal in Australia and may trigger customs seizure of imports.
- Check for mealybug infestation: Australian nurseries occasionally flag Pseudococcus infestations on juvenile plants.
- Beware of mislabelling: confusion with Doryanthes excelsa (more common, cheaper) is frequent. Without flowering material, careful examination of leaf width, habit and vendor documentation is the only safeguard.
- Avoid mail-order purchase of very large plants: transit damage to the long, flexible leaves is almost inevitable.
- Seed sources: fresh seed is periodically available through specialist Australian seed merchants (with appropriate phytosanitary documentation), botanical garden seed exchange programs (index seminum), and rare plant society seed banks. Viability drops rapidly after 12 months, so only recent harvests are worth sowing.
Propagation
From seed
Seed propagation is the primary and most reliable method. Fresh seeds germinate in 4 to 8 weeks at 22-25 °C on a light substrate (peat and perlite in equal parts), kept moist but not waterlogged, under diffuse bright light. Germination rates fall off rapidly with seed age: seed less than 12 months old is strongly preferred. Individual potting-on follows at 6 to 12 months, once seedlings have developed three to four true leaves. A 24-hour warm-water pre-soak improves germination rates.
Clump division
Mature clumps produce basal offshoots that can be separated in autumn or spring, with a good root ball. Re-establishment is slow but generally reliable. This method is especially relevant after the flowering rosette has died: the young offshoots that have already developed around it can be individualised to ensure continuity. Unlike for the sister species Doryanthes excelsa, basal offshoots of Doryanthes palmeri are somewhat more readily separable, though still less abundant than on a typical Agave or Aloe.
Fire-induced flowering
In the wild, moderate bushfires stimulate synchronous flowering and seed germination in Doryanthes palmeri. This pyrophytic induction, shared with other Australian monocotyledons such as Xanthorrhoea and some Macrozamia, obviously cannot be reproduced in cultivation. It nevertheless provides an essential ecological context for understanding the species’ long flowering cycles and synchronised seed production, and explains why wild populations often present cohorts of similarly aged rosettes all approaching flowering at the same time.
Modular monocarpy
Mainstream horticultural media frequently describe Doryanthes palmeri as “dying after flowering”. This formulation is imprecise and deserves clarification. Only the individual flowering rosette dies, having committed all of its accumulated reserves to producing the inflorescence. The clump as a whole persists through the basal offshoots developed over prior decades, which will flower in turn after further long vegetative phases. This strategy — modular monocarpy — parallels what is observed in Aeonium, clonal Agave species and Yucca brevifolia, rather than the strict monocarpy of Corypha umbraculifera or most American Agave, where the entire genet dies at flowering.
Pests and diseases
The species is robust in cultivation, and does not present any specific major pest. Issues most commonly encountered are:
- Crown and root rot — the leading cause of cultivation failure, linked to waterlogging, particularly in winter. Absolute prevention through flawless drainage and strict winter restraint in watering.
- Mealybugs (Pseudococcus longispinus, Pseudococcus viburni) — mainly under glass, in the leaf axils. Treated with horticultural soap sprays or paraffin-oil formulations.
- Scale insects — rare but possible, particularly Parlatoria and Aspidiotus. Manual removal with an alcohol-dampened swab generally suffices.
- Leaf scorch — on young plants abruptly exposed to full summer sun without acclimatisation. Preventable by gradual hardening over the first two seasons after planting.
- Fungal leaf spots (Colletotrichum, Pestalotiopsis) — occasional in stagnant, humid conditions, favoured by the persistent dense foliage. Manage with improved ventilation, removal of affected leaves and preventive copper sprays in spring.
- Slugs and snails — only a concern for very young seedlings.
Landscape use
Under ideal conditions (USDA zone 9b-10a, full sun, free-draining soil), Doryanthes palmeri functions as a first-rank architectural specimen. Its monumental rosette imposes itself as an isolated focal point at the centre of a lawn, at the head of a stone staircase or as the anchor of a structured dry-garden composition. Its slow growth rate suits long-term garden plans, in counterpoint to strong landscape features such as boulders, retaining walls or axial pathways.
The species combines remarkably well with other structural subtropical or Mediterranean plants: Furcraea longaeva, Aloe ferox, Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata, Butia odorata, large Beschorneria such as Beschorneria yuccoides, and cold-hardy statuesque palms including Trachycarpus fortunei and Brahea armata. Cycads such as Macrozamia moorei, Encephalartos horridus or Dioon spinulosum provide architectural companions on a comparable time scale. At the lower stratum, graphic perennials — Stipa gigantea, Kniphofia caulescens, Hedychium gardnerianum, Lomandra longifolia — accentuate the textural contrast.
Allow a minimum of 4 metres of clear diameter around the mature plant, and anticipate the overhead reach of the flowering scape which can arch considerably at anthesis. In gardens open to the public, fencing off the immediate area around a plant approaching flowering is advisable to prevent accidental damage.
Ethnobotanical uses
The Aboriginal peoples of eastern Australia — particularly the Yugambeh and Bundjalung nations, whose traditional territories overlap with the natural range of Doryanthes palmeri — used the species in multiple ways. Young flower stalks, harvested before the blossoms opened, were roasted over open fires and eaten as a fleshy vegetable with a texture and flavour somewhat reminiscent of palm heart. The starchy rhizomes were chewed, mashed and baked as flat cakes on hot stones. The long fibrous leaves were used for weaving baskets and making cordage. Although less prominent in the colonial ethnobotanical record than the southern gymea lily (Doryanthes excelsa), these uses are well documented and contribute to the living cultural significance of the species for contemporary First Nations communities.
Frequently asked questions
How long does a Doryanthes palmeri take to flower?
In its natural habitat, flowering typically begins at 13-15 years of age. In European cultivation, the wait is considerably extended by lower light intensity and shorter growing seasons: 20 to 45 years are typical. The current documented record is 43 years for a specimen sown in 1983 and flowered in 2026 at the Geneva Botanical Garden, grown in a greenhouse pot throughout its life.
Does the plant really die after flowering?
Only the flowering rosette dies after committing all its reserves to producing the inflorescence. The clump as a whole survives through basal offshoots produced over preceding years: this is modular monocarpy, not strict monocarpy. Old clumps can therefore flower successively over several multi-decade cycles.
Can the giant spear lily be grown in the UK or continental Europe?
Yes, but under specific conditions. In-ground cultivation succeeds on the Mediterranean Riviera (Italian and French) in USDA zones 9b-10a, on perfectly drained soil, in sheltered sun. The Hanbury Botanical Gardens (La Mortola), Villa Ormond (San Remo) and the Jardin Gonzales at Bormes-les-Mimosas all maintain mature specimens. Away from the Mediterranean coast, container cultivation with frost-free winter shelter is the practical solution — as demonstrated by the 43-year Geneva specimen. Outdoor cultivation in the British Isles is generally restricted to the mildest maritime microclimates such as the Isles of Scilly.
How can I tell Doryanthes palmeri from Doryanthes excelsa?
Doryanthes palmeri is the larger species, with leaves up to 3 metres long that are wider (15-20 cm) and markedly more pendant. Its flowering scape bends over under the weight of an elongated raceme. Doryanthes excelsa has narrower, more upright leaves (10-12 cm wide, up to 2.5 m), a strictly erect flowering scape, and a compact globose flower head. The two species also occupy distinct geographic ranges and altitudinal bands.
Where can I buy Doryanthes palmeri seeds or plants in Europe or North America?
A small number of specialist nurseries deal in rare and Mediterranean plants, principally in Italy (Ligurian region), Spain (Catalonia and Andalusia), the United Kingdom (Tresco Abbey Garden area, specialist southwest nurseries) and California (specialist succulent nurseries serving zones 9b-10b). Fresh seed appears intermittently via botanical garden seed exchanges and specialist bulb-society seed lists. Direct import from Australia requires appropriate phytosanitary certification.
Authority websites and databases
- Plants of the World Online (POWO, Kew) — https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:64291-1 — the reference nomenclatural database with accepted name, full synonymy, distribution mapping and primary publication references.
- Australian National Botanic Gardens (ANBG) — https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2012/doryanthes-palmeri.html — detailed horticultural and ecological fact sheet, describing reproductive biology and Australian conservation context.
- Australian Plants Society NSW — https://resources.austplants.com.au/plant/doryanthes-palmeri/ — ethnobotanical context, field population data and high-quality habitat photography.
- NSW Threatened Species — https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/ — official determinations for the Vulnerable status under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995, with associated recovery planning information.
- Pacific Bulb Society Wiki — https://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Doryanthes — documented photographs of flowerings on the Italian Riviera (Hanbury, San Remo) and in California.
- Atlas of Living Australia — https://bie.ala.org.au/ — georeferenced historical and contemporary occurrences, citizen-science observations and herbarium records.
- Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de Genève — https://www.cjbg.ch/ — documentation of the 2026 flowering of a specimen sown in 1983, and of the earlier 2022 flowering, illustrating long-term ex-situ cultivation success in Europe.
- Ruth Bancroft Garden (California) — https://www.ruthbancroftgarden.org/plants/doryanthes-palmeri/ — cultivation notes under Californian Mediterranean conditions, with field observations relevant to USDA zone 9b-10a.
- Monaco Nature Encyclopedia — https://www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com/doryanthes-palmeri/?lang=en — multilingual descriptive profile with close-up inflorescence photography.
- Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria — VicFlora — https://vicflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/ — complementary Australian flora reference with distribution information cross-referenced to herbarium specimens.
Bibliography
- Bull, W. (1873). Doryanthes palmeri. Gardeners’ Chronicle 1873: 606. [Protologue]
- Bentham, G. (1873-1878). Flora Australiensis, vol. 6. L. Reeve & Co., London.
- George, A.S. (ed.) (1986). Flora of Australia, vol. 46. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- Perry, D.A. (2001). The distribution, relative abundance and conservation status of Doryanthes palmeri (Doryanthaceae) in New South Wales. Cunninghamia 7(2): 183-193.
- Forster, P.I. (1995). Notes on the horticultural merits of Doryanthes palmeri. Australian Plants 18(143): 73-76.
- Nash, S.M. (1996). The biology of Doryanthes excelsa (Doryanthaceae). MSc thesis, University of Sydney.
- Harden, G.J. (ed.) (1993). Flora of New South Wales, vol. 4. New South Wales University Press, Sydney.
- Walsh, N.G. & Entwisle, T.J. (eds.) (1994). Flora of Victoria, vol. 2. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
- Wrigley, J.W. & Fagg, M.I. (2001). Australian Native Plants — Propagation, cultivation and use in landscaping, 4th edition. New Holland Publishers, Sydney.
- Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2016). An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 181(1): 1-20.
- Chase, M.W., Reveal, J.L. & Fay, M.F. (2009). A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 161(2): 132-136.